Results suggested some efficacy for MI in the short but not in the long term. We found moderate evidence of effect for CBT, but weaker evidence for pharmacotherapy and SHIs. Self-help interventions (SHIs) showed some efficacy in promoting treatment-seeking, and in combination with other treatments. Motivational interviewing (MI) seemed to improve several GD domains, alone or in combination with CBT. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) was the most commonly used psychological intervention and reduced global severity, gambling frequency, and financial loss. Lithium was particularly effective in subjects with comorbid bipolar disorders. Studies reported promising results of opioid antagonists and mood stabilizers in reducing GD-related symptomatology. Twenty-six studies were eventually included in this meta-review. MEDLINE, PubMed, Cochrane, Web of Science, Embase, and CINAHL electronic databases were searched up to April 2019 for systematic reviews on pharmacological, psychosocial, and combined treatment of adults with GD. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature on the pharmacological and psychosocial treatment of adults with GD, and to identify possible agreed-upon standards of care. Although the research on GD has been rising over the years, approved treatment guidelines are currently not available. Gambling disorder (GD) leads to impaired socioeconomical functioning and increased social costs.
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